X-ray Diffraction (XRD)

X-ray Diffraction (XRD) works by irradiating a sample with X-rays and analyzing the resulting diffraction pattern. Each crystal lattice plane within the sample diffracts X-rays at specific angles, producing distinctive peaks in the diffraction pattern. These peaks are characteristic of the crystal structure and spacing of atoms within the material. XRD is extensively used in materials science, geology, chemistry, and physics to identify crystalline phases, determine crystallographic orientation, and quantify phase compositions. It can analyze a wide range of materials including metals, minerals, ceramics, polymers, and pharmaceuticals. XRD instruments vary from laboratory-based powder diffractometers to high-resolution single-crystal diffractometers. The technique provides valuable information on lattice parameters, grain size, crystal defects, and phase transformations. Advanced analysis methods such as Rietveld refinement allow for precise determination of crystal structures and quantitative phase analysis. XRD is non-destructive and requires minimal sample preparation, making it a versatile tool for both research and industrial applications. Its ability to elucidate atomic arrangements and crystal symmetry has led to significant advancements in materials development, catalyst design, and pharmaceutical formulation.